Projects
Iconology of Raphael's Marriage of the Virgin: A Study
Art History 400
December 8, 2004
In 1939, Erwin Panofsky proposed the theory of iconology. This theory is concerned with finding the deeper cultural meaning in works of art, as opposed to strictly being concerned with style, or identifying the subject matter only (as in iconography). In other words, looking at the work of art as an expression of the culture in which it was created. Panofsky uses a three-step formula in examining a work of art. He begins by examining, what he calls, the "primary or natural subject matter". In this category, (also called the "pre-iconographical description"), Panofsky (1962) identifies the forms and objects, and examines any qualities of expression that the work may possess (5). The next step investigates the "secondary or conventional subject matter". This step identifies the iconography of the work: the narratives and allegories that are depicted (Panofsky 1962:6). Finally, the examination of the "intrinsic meaning or content" is performed, to arrive at an iconological interpretation. Of the third and final step, Panofsky (1962) writes, "It is apprehended by ascertaining those underlying principles which reveal the basic attitude of a nation, a period, a class, a religious or philosophical persuasion - unconsciously qualified by one personality and condensed into one work" (7). This step studies the work of art in terms of deciphering various elements depicted in the work to discover general characteristics about the time and context in which it was created. Context that was brought to fruition in the specific way the artist chose to depict the work. . Panofsky (1962) also calls these elements "symptoms" (8). Though in the finished examination, Panofsky (1962) does state that the three steps to exploring the iconology of a work will merge into one overall process (17). However, for the purposes of clarity, in this essay, I will break down the method into the three individual steps of Panofsky's theory of iconology to examine Raphael's Marriage of the Virgin (Figure 1). I will begin by examining the "pre-iconographical description" of Raphael's work. In the foreground of the work, a group of figures are depicted. The group is comprised of six women on the left, six men on the right, of whom one is depicted with bare feet, and there is one man dividing them in the center. The central figure holds the right wrists of the two figures closest to him (a man and a woman), and looks down at their hands. The man and woman face each other, also looking down at their hands. As one's eye travels backwards along the picture plane, there are other figures depicted, ranging from a single person standing on his own to a group made up of five people. The figures are standing on a symmetrical and regularly patterned ground space. In the background, filling up approximately one third of the canvas is a large cylindrical, colonnaded building, resting on an eight-stepped base. Finally, beyond the building is a green landscape, though as it is far away in the distance of the picture plane, it is therefore quite ambiguous.
The pre-iconographical description of the work also includes a description of the expressions on the faces of the figures, and the expressive gestures they make. Overall, the feeling the work conveys is one of calmness, bordering on disinterest. The faces of the main grouping of figures are quite expressionless, in that there is no strong emotion depicted on them. Several of the figures have slightly frowning mouths, but they do not appear to be unhappy. The feeling of disinterest lends itself from the fact that not all the figures are observing the action that is taking place between the three main figures. One is looking out at the viewer, and others are staring into the distance, in various directions. The only suggestion of emotion is coming from the gestures of the man in the foreground on the right hand side. He bends a stick across his knee, in a pose suggestive of anger, however, from what one can observe from the expression on his face, he does not appear to be angry. In the background, the figures depicted are interacting with the members of their respective groups, however the details are not clear enough to glean any information about their emotional state.
The second step of Panofsky's theory of iconology explores the conventional subject matter of the work. Panofsky (1962) describes this stage as an "iconographical analysis in the narrower sense"; thus meaning that an identification of the figures in the work, and the event, story, or allegory that is represented is attempted (7). In Raphael's work, the story that is depicted (as given by the title) is that of the marriage of the Virgin Mary to the carpenter Joseph. This event is one that is important to the Christian faith, though the story is not one that is written in the bible. Instead, the discription of the event is found in "The Golden Legend". Written by Jacobus de Voragine, in the thirteenth century, the book is organised by the important Christian celebrations of the ecclesiastical year that correspond with particular saints and biblical figures. For each day, a discription of the life of a particular saint, or an event of a particular biblical figure is written (De Voragine, 1969:v-viii). Many of the events described in de Voragine's book, about the biblical figures, are not actually written in the bible: for example, the story of Mary's childhood and marriage. The marriage is described as follows:
| When [Mary] had come to her fourteenth year, the high priest announced to all that the virgins who were reared in the Temple, and who had reached the age of their womanhood, should return to their own, and be given in lawful marriage. The rest obeyed the command, and Mary alone answered that this she could not do, both because her parents had dedicated her to the service of the Lord, and because she herself had vowed her virginity to God.... When the high priest went in to take counsel with God, a voice came forth from the oratory for all to hear, and it said that of all the marriageable men of the house of David who had not yet taken a wife, each should bring a branch and lay it upon the altar, that one of the branches would burst into flower and upon it the Holy Ghost would come to rest in the form of a dove, according to the prophecy of Isaias, and that he to whom this branch belonged would be the one to whom the virgin should be espoused. Joseph was among the men who came.... [and he] placed a branch upon the altar, and straightaway it burst into bloom, and a dove came from Heaven and perched at its summit; whereby it was manifest to all that the Virgin was to become the spouse of Joseph. (de Vorgine, 1969:523-4) |
The figures in Raphael's work are representations of the figures in the story. The central figure can be identified as the high priest who first decreed that the virgin's should marry, then asked the Lord for an answer to the dilemma presented by Mary, and is witness to the flowers blooming from the end of Joseph's branch. In the moment in time that the work is depicting, the high priest is presiding over the marriage of Mary and Joseph. The Virgin Mary and Joseph are the two figures in the centre of the composition that are turned towards each other. Mary is depicted wearing garments in colours that are traditionally associated with her: blue and red. Joseph holds his flowering branch in his left hand, and is about to place a ring on Mary's finger with his other hand. Also depicted, to the right of Joseph, are the suitors whose branches did not flower. One bends it across his knee as if to break it in half (though as previously mentioned, he does not appear to show any emotion of anger on his face). The women to the left of Mary are identified as several of the other virgins in the Temple, though they do not have a direct iconographic attributes to identify who they are (Ferguson, 1959:43).
Finally, the most important phase of iconology examines the work of art as symptom of the larger socio-cultural context in which it was produced. In the case of Raphael's Marriage of the Virgin, this work can be seen as a symptom of a trend of the time: that of copying the style and works of one's master, and improving upon, or adding one's individual style to that of the master (Stokstad, 2002:33-4). Raphael's work is an excellent example of this phenomenon. The clear influence of Raphael's teacher, Pietro Vannucci (better known as Perugino, after the city that he worked from), is embodied in Raphael's work. This influence is especially apparent when looking at two of Perugino's works: Christ Giving the Key's to Saint Peter (figure 2) and Perugino's own Marriage of the Virgin (figure 3). The first work, Christ Giving the Key's to Saint Peter, was finished in 1481, twenty-three years before Raphael's work. However, the influence of Perugino is clear. Both works use the same one-point perspective, with the orthogonals meeting at similar points in the door of the temple. Raphael has also incorporated the use of a grid in the piazza space to emphasise the orthogonals. Frederick Hartt and David G. Wilkins (2003) also note that the spatial layout of the figures is similar (511). Both works have figures painted in a frieze like composition along the foreground of the work. They also both have groups of figures placed further back in the picture plane. The use of colour is likewise similar between the two artists. Hartt and Wilkins (2003) write, "Even the clear, simple colours of the painting -the cloudless blue sky; the strong, deep blues, roses, and yellows of the drapery; the sun-warmed tan of the stone; and the blue-green hills - are derived from Perugino (511). The temple in Raphael's work also reflects that of Perugino. Both are polyhedral in their basic shape, though the footprint of Perugino's temple is a Greek cross plan, and Raphael has chosen not to depict the radiating transepts of the Greek cross plan in his work (De Vecchi, 2002:68-9). All the similarities found in these two works can also be found in the two Marriage of the Virgin works by Raphael and Perugino. However, in this case, the two works were produced concurrently, with the final date of Perugino's work most likely later then Raphael's (Pope-Hennessy, 1970:85). De Vecchi (2002) notes, "Strong compositional and iconographic similarities between the two paintings suggest that Raphael was enjoined to conform in style and form to the senior artists model" (67). In other words, that Raphael was likely commissioned to paint a work that was similar in style to Perugino.
The similarities and differences between the work by Raphael and the two works by Perugino also are symptoms of other shifts in artistic style between the Quattrocento and the new century, leading into the High Renaissance period. In his book, "Lives of the Artists", the renaissance writer and first art historian, Vasari first noted the change in style between Raphael and Perugino. He writes that before Raphael's Marriage of the Virgin, the styles of the two artists were so close, that it was impossible to differentiate between works of the master, and the copies by the student (Vasari, 1965:285). Of later in Raphael's life, Vasari (1965) writes, "[Raphael] painted a small panel picture of the Marriage of Our Lady which shows very forcefully the way his own style was improving as he surpassed the works of Pietro (Perugino)" (286). Two examples of this change in style by Raphael that also reflect a larger change in style of the time, are those of the architecture, and the spatial organisation of the figures in the foreground of Perugino and Raphael's works. Spatially, though both artists use a frieze like composition in the placement of their figures, Raphael's arrangement is moving toward the styles and the use of perspective found in the High Renaissance. Bruno Santi (1991) notes that while Perugino's composition is still characterised by the horizontal style of the Quattrocento, Raphael's composition is circular in nature (8). Instead of his figures straight across the front of the picture plane, as if they were all standing on a long line, the feet of Raphael's figures form a curved line mimicking the rounded shape formed by the temple, and even the upper frame of the work itself. De Vecchi discusses this circular relationship. He writes, "The temple becomes the real focal point, the dominant element that creates the circular space in which the figures themselves are carefully deployed in a gentle curve rather than simply aligned on an single flat plane" (De Vecchi, 2002:67).
The prominence of the temples in the two Marriage of the Virgin paintings is also a symptom of the times in which the works were created. As the temple takes up over a third of the space in Raphael's work, and half of Perugino's, this is indicative of the huge interest in architecture, especially Classical styles of architecture, during the Renaissance. Hartt and Wilkins (2003) write, "For Italians during the Renaissance, architecture was the leading art. New buildings were erected and old ones remodelled. New city centres were constructed, and ideal cities -destined to remain dreams -reached fulfilment only when described in treatises" (52). This discription is particularly apt to Raphael and Perugino's works, as none of the ideal spaces depicted were ever actually built. Hartt and Wilkins (2003), note that this is likely because it would have been impractical (due to issues of space), and also impractical in bad weather; for example, there would be nothing to block strong winds in the open piazzas (410). The ideal spaces illustrated in the works are, however, symptoms of a larger interest in architecture at the time, specifically interest in the theories of Leon Battista Alberti's "Ten Books on Architecture" (De Vecchi, 2002:68). Alberti (1955) writes of an ideal square, giving proportions for the size of the square, and also of the proportions and types of the structures (such as temple's or triumphal arches) surrounding the square (173-4). The idea of the ideal square is more clearly seen in Perugino's Christ Giving the Keys to St. Peter, however Alberti's ideas can also been seen in Raphael's work. Alberti (1955) gives very exacting information about the proportions and features of a temple, including information about the thickness and style of columns (ionic), and that the temple should be raised on a stepped pedestal (166-8). These features are all included in Raphael's Marriage of the Virgin. De Vecchi (2002), also notes that Raphael's temple follows other decrees of Alberti: that of the temple as a polygonal building, that it has a portico around it, and that it should be built wholly in white materials (70). In addition, as an acquaintance of Donato Bramante (who was also influenced by Alberti's writings), Raphael was familiar with the construction of Bramante's Tempietto (it appears in the background of another work by Raphael; Stokstad, 2002:701). Indeed, the temple in Raphael's painting is similar in shape to that of the Tempietto, though there are some notable stylistic differences, such as the use of arches in Raphael's portico, as opposed to Bramante's Doric style columns and roof.
The classical styles that Raphael's temple is done in is also characteristic of the times in which the work was created. The use of Roman arches and Greek columns on Raphael's temple reflect the huge interest in the Greek and Roman styles during the Renaissance. Marilyn Stokstad (2002) characterises this period as one of "Self confident humanism, admiration of classical art, and a prevailing sense of stability and order" (687). The classicising styles of Raphael's temple in the Marriage of the Virgin are simply a symptom of the broader trends in art and architecture of the time.
The last issue I wish to discuss is the subject matter of the work as a symptom of larger trends in Renaissance religious culture. At the time this work was created, the cult of the Virgin Mary was extremely popular. The Marion cult existed from the inception of the Christian faith, however, in the beginning, it was only from the sidelines of the religious practise. Elliot Miller and Kenneth R. Samples (1992) write, "When the council of Chalcedon in 451 officially recognised Mary as the mother of God, opportunity was allowed for the cult of the Virgin to infiltrate the mainstream of the church" (20). The popularity of Mary grew. For example, many churches, and even cities, such as the city of Siena in Italy, were dedicated to her (Hartt and Wilkins, 2003:126). Mary was seen as an intercessor for the Christian peoples. She is the bridge between the divine realm and the earthly realm; she was born a human but gave birth to the divine Son of God, and therefore Mary occupies both the realms (Warner, 2000:286). Due to this interest in the cult of the Virgin, pilgrimages to venerate her relics and to pray to her so that she might use her divine influence on behalf of the pilgrim, were also extremely popular. Raphael's work is a symptom of the overall interest at the time of the Renaissance to undertake these pilgrimages. The work was commissioned for the Città di Castello, for a chapel in the Franciscan church that was dedicated to St. Joseph (De Vecchi, 2002:67). Hartt and Wilkins (2003) also note that it was likely commissioned specifically for an altar dedicated to the wedding ring of the Virgin (511). In this case, the subject matter (which depicts the Virgin's wedding and indeed, her ring) reflects the trends of pilgrimage and veneration of relics in the Renaissance.
Raphael's Marriage of the Virgin embodies some of the characteristics of the period in which it was created. These characteristics or "symptoms" are depicted through the eyes of one man: the artist. Panofsky's three-step process of iconology, made up of a pre-iconographical analysis, an iconographical analysis, and a study of the intrinsic meaning of a work of art, provides a framework for the art historian to attempt to gain greater understanding of artistic periods in a logical and clear manner.
Probably commissioned by the Albizzini family of Città di Castello. (Hartt and Wilkins, 2003:512)
Commissioned by Pope Sixtus IV della Rovere. (Hartt and Wilkins, 2003: 409)
Musée des Beaux-Arts, Caen. (De Vecchi, 2002: 66)
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© 2004 Rosanne Lester